They needed a complex system of government to help manage inter-city affairs, taxes, and scribes to help things run smoothly and cohesively. Governing and advancing such a complex network of cities and making trade deals across long distances meant another great leap was made — it was just the catalyst needed for the invention of writing.
Mesopotamians had their own special writing form called cuneiform which was first used around BC by the Sumerians. Mesopotamian relief BC, showing cuneiform script. Although cuneiform was initially taught only to a few scribes, there is evidence that literacy was widespread in Mesopotamia after the rule of the Akkadian conqueror Sargon , when the use of cuneiform became commonplace. There was a public library in the city of Babylon and both men and women were taught to read and write.
Although many of the surviving cuneiform texts cover pragmatic subjects such as trade deals there are also works of fiction. The most famous of these is the Epic of Gilgamesh — a tale so incredible it has survived for thousands of years and is still read and enjoyed by many today.
Although early Mesopotamia was founded by the Sumerians, they were eventually conquered by the Akkadian Empire. The empire was founded by Sargon, a man who very little is known about.
He believed himself to be the son of a temple priestess, though he did not know who his father was. As well as conquering Mesopotamia, he was able to take over parts of Syria, Iran, Kuwait, Jordan, Turkey, and some people believe even Cyprus. After his death, Sargon was elevated to god-like status. He became known as Sargon the Great, and there were legends about his accomplishments and deeds. Sargon the Great, ruler of the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia. Naram-Sin died years after his grandfather first ascended the throne, and his death marked the end of the first true dynastic empire which fell to the Amorites as a result of unrest and famine.
Under the Akkadians, Mesopotamia had achieved many significant things. There were roads built between cities, a postal system was implemented as a result of greater levels of literacy and ties between cities, and there were improvements in farming techniques.
Riches were regained, rebellions were crushed, and spectacular buildings like the Ishtar Temple in Ninevah were constructed.
The Akkadians helped push Mesopotamian culture from interesting to legendary. Another thing Mesopotamia established was codes of law. The laws were designed to encompass all the people in Mesopotamia. They were so varied in their lifestyles and beliefs that it was crucial the law code was simple, specific, and easy to interpret. The same laws had to be understood and followed by housewives in large well off cities as well as farmers toiling in villages.
Anyone who injured another person in a fight would be disfigured or even killed for their crime. People from different parts of Mesopotamia had been fighting among themselves for hundreds of years, and the law was also intended to put an end to the blood feuds which were causing problems in some parts of Mesopotamia. Although the punishments in the Code of Law seem barbaric, Hammurabi also established the principle that a person was innocent until proven guilty.
The Assyrian Empire is considered by many historians and archaeologists to be the greatest of the Mesopotamian empires. It was massive, bureaucratically efficient, and dominant on the battlefield. It had its roots in northern Mesopotamia, in the city of Ashur. Ruins unearthed at the site suggest the city was founded in around BC, but the location was probably inhabited for a long time before this. The city was a thriving center of trade and the wealth accumulated meant the city was a powerful force and able to expand.
The ancient city of Ashur in Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq. Assyrian rule lasted hundreds of years, with sporadic interruptions by other dynasties. And yet the influence and power held by the Assyrians and the city of Ashur meant it was able to keep reclaiming power. The final Assyrian rule over Mesopotamia is now known as the Neo-Assyrian era.
It marked the transition from Bronze Age to Iron Age in Mesopotamia, and the Assyrians utilized new technologies such as iron weapons, giving them a massive advantage in combat against people who were still equipped with inferior bronze. Their iron weapons and well-trained troops made them almost impossible to defeat and the empire began to spread further. They used war chariots and siege machines and used tactics such as ladders to scale fortified city walls.
But they were more than warmongers and conquerors. Their willingness to include aspects of the cultures they were invading meant their artwork, medicinal practices, and education were all extremely advanced.
The Assyrian king Sennacherib moved the capital of Mesopotamia to Nineveh and built an extravagant palace with gardens that were likely the Hanging Gardens of legend.
Ancient Mesopotamia Assyrian sculpture painting. His kingdom was so rich that artisans created incredible artifacts and ornamentation. Ashurbanipal himself was a ruthless leader, but a very intelligent man who amassed a vast library of cuneiform texts. With such a rich history and mix of cultures over the years, the Mesopotamian world was a truly fascinating one.
The importance of religion at the roots of the empire never lost their significance and religion was at the heart of Mesopotamian life. They may have originally believed the will of the gods meant the success or failure of a harvest or hunt, but this evolved into a belief the gods had a hand in absolutely every aspect of life.
They worshipped a massive pantheon of gods , with thousands of minor deities and many major gods and goddesses. Every city had its own patron god and every situation had a god that could be called upon. Stepped pyramid like buildings called ziggurats were built in cities to house the patron gods. They were topped with a shrine or alter which was only accessible to priests and religious officials.
Ancient ziggurat designed to house the gods of Mesopotamia. The priests and priestesses of Mesopotamia retained the power they had held for thousands of years, and they were viewed in the same regard as kings. Religion played such an important part in the lives of Mesopotamians that they considered the role of these people awe inspiring.
This more reliable food supply meant humans could stay in one place and gave rise to settled communities and cities. These urban civilizations had larger populations, unique architecture and art, systems of government, different social and economic classes, and a division of labor. Learn more about the rise of cities with these resources. Mesopotamia is thought to be one of the places where early civilization developed. It is a historic region of West Asia within the Tigris-Euphrates river system.
In fact, the word Mesopotamia means "between rivers" in Greek. Home to the ancient civilizations of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia these peoples are credited with influencing mathematics and astronomy.
Use these classroom resources to help your students develop a better understanding of the cradle of civilization. The silk road was a network of paths connecting civilizations in the East and West that was well traveled for approximately 1, years. Merchants on the silk road transported goods and traded at bazaars or caravanserai along the way.
They traded goods such as silk, spices, tea, ivory, cotton, wool, precious metals, and ideas. Use these resources to explore this ancient trade route with your students. Ancient Greek politics, philosophy, art and scientific achievements greatly influenced Western civilizations today. One example of their legacy is the Olympic Games. Use the videos, media, reference materials, and other resources in this collection to teach about ancient Greece, its role in modern-day democracy, and civic engagement.
A civilization is a complex human society that may have certain characteristics of cultural and technological development. Join our community of educators and receive the latest information on National Geographic's resources for you and your students.
Skip to content. Twitter Facebook Pinterest Google Classroom. Article Vocabulary. Civilization describes a complex way of life that came about as people began to develop networks of urban settlements. The earliest civilizations developed between and BCE, when the rise of agriculture and trade allowed people to have surplus food and economic stability.
Many people no longer had to practice farming, allowing a diverse array of professions and interests to flourish in a relatively confined area. Civilizations first appeared in Mesopotamia what is now Iraq and later in Egypt. Civilizations ultimately developed on every continent except Antarctica.
All civilizations have certain characteristics. These include: 1 large population centers; 2 monumental architecture and unique art styles; 3 shared communication strategies; 4 systems for administering territories; 5 a complex division of labor; and 6 the division of people into social and economic classes.
Rural residents of civilizations may include farmers, fishers, and traders, who regularly sell their goods and services to urban residents. The huge urban center of Teotihuacan, in modern-day Mexico, for example, had as many as , residents between and CE. The development of the Teotihuacano civilization was made possible in part by the rich agricultural land surrounding the city.
As land was cultivate d, fewer farmers could supply more food staple s, such as corn and beans, to more people. Much of the wealth and power of Teotihuacan was due to excavating and trading the rich deposits of obsidian around the city.
Obsidian is a hard volcanic rock that was highly valued as a cutting tool. Teotihuacano merchant s traded exported obsidian to surrounding cultures in exchange for goods and services imported to Teotihuacano settlements. All civilizations work to preserve their legacy by building large monument s and structures 2. This is as true today as it was thousands of years ago.
For example, the ancient monuments at Great Zimbabwe are still consistently used as a symbol of political power in the modern nation of Zimbabwe.
Great Zimbabwe, constructed between and , describes the ruins of the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. At its peak, Great Zimbabwe was inhabited by more than 10, people and was part of a trading network that extended from the Maghreb , through the eastern coast of Africa, and as far east as India and China.
Great Zimbabwe is a testament to the sophistication and ingenuity of ancestor s of the local Shona people. Buildings are not the only monuments that define civilizations. The distinct artistic style of Great Zimbabwe included representations of native animals carved in soapstone. Shared communication 3 is another element that all civilizations share. Shared communication may include spoken language; alphabets; numeric systems; signs, ideas, and symbols; and illustration and representation.
Shared communication allows the infrastructure necessary for technology , trade, cultural exchange , and government to be developed and shared throughout the civilization. The Inca civilization, for example, had no written script that we know of, but its complex khipu system of accounting allowed the government to conduct census es of its population and production across the vast stretch of the Andes mountains. A khipu is a recording device made of a series of strings knotted in particular patterns and colors.
Written language in particular allows civilizations to record their own history and everyday events—crucial for understanding ancient cultures. The world's oldest known written language is Sumerian, which developed in Mesopotamia around BCE. The most familiar form of early Sumerian writing was called cuneiform , and was made up of different collections of wedge triangle shapes.
The earliest Sumerian writing was record-keeping. Just like written records of modern civilizations, Sumerian cuneiform kept track of tax es, grocery bills, and laws for things like theft. Written language was a key part of shared communication during the Islamic Golden Age , which flourished in southern Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia from the seventh to the 13th centuries. All civilizations rely on government administration —bureaucracy.
To rule an area that large, the Romans, based in what is now central Italy, needed an effective system of government administration and infrastructure.
Romans used a variety of methods to administer their republic and, later, empire. Engineering , for instance, was a key part of Roman administration. Romans built a network of roads so that communication between far-away territories was as efficient as possible.
Roads also made travel by the Roman military much easier. Romans built structures of their civilization everywhere they went: aqueduct s supplied freshwater to towns for improved sanitation and hygiene , for example. Language also played a part in Roman infrastructure. Romans spread the Latin language throughout southern Europe. The so-called "Romance languages" Spanish, French, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, and Italian are called that because they all developed from the Roman language: Latin.
Having a similar language made communication and leadership easier for Rome in its far-flung territories. Roman leaders relied on a series of legal codes for administration. These codes helped structure laws between different parts of Roman territory, as well as between rich and poor, men and women, slave and free.
Roman laws included restrictions on marriage, ownership of land, and access to professions such as priesthoods. Roman law was largely public , and jurists created such formalities as legal language and procedure that would define European law for centuries. Finally, Romans used local leaders, as well as Romans, to administer the law in their territories. Residents were more familiar with their own leaders, and more likely to follow their announcements.
Israeli leaders worked with Roman authorities in the Roman territory of Palestine, for example, while British leaders often worked with Romans on the island of Great Britain.
Some people born in Roman territories eventually became Roman emperors: The emperor Constantine, for instance, was born in what is now Serbia; the emperor Hadrian may have been born in what is now Spain.
This interaction reduced conflict between Rome and its territories. Civilizations are marked by complex divisions of labor 5. This means that different people perform specialized tasks.
In a purely agricultural society, members of the community are largely self-sufficient, and can provide food, shelter, and clothing for themselves. In a complex civilization, farmers may cultivate one type of crop and depend on other people for other foods, clothing, shelter, and information. Civilizations that depend on trade are specially marked by divisions of labor.
The city of Timbuktu, in what is now Mali, was an important trading center for several African civilizations. Residents of Timbuktu specialized in trading such goods as gold, ivory, or slaves.
Other residents provided food or shelter for trade caravan s traveling on camels from the Sahara Desert. The urban center of Timbuktu was also a center of learning. Its division of labor included not only merchants, but doctors, religious leaders, and artists. The last element that is key to the development of civilizations is the division of people into class es 6.
This is a complex idea that can be broken down into two parts: income and type of work performed. Changing classes has traditionally been difficult and happens over generation s.
Classes can mean groups of people divided by their income. In medieval civilizations of Europe, there were fewer economic classes. That is why some people and I believe that those three civilizations can really be considered as one larger civilization. When taken as one civilization, you can think of Ghana and Mali and Songhay as three peaks of this one larger civilization, but as Songhay began to lose control of the trade routes another rising power from around todays Morocco caused the final fall of the West African civilization.
West Africa fits in as a civilization by having common language roots of the Mande and Arabic, as well as a tolerant religion of a mixture of Islam and polytheism. They were located in western sub-Saharan Africa and maintained a heavy reliance on trade for their economies. But since they relied so heavily on the trade routes through the Saharan desserts once they lost control of those routes, they eventually diminished in power, and were invaded by other powers.
The third civilization I would like to discuss is the Mayan Civilization. Its geographic location encompasses todays Guatemala, El Salvador, and Mexico.
It was established in one hundred C. The culture was undoubtedly polytheistic as there were enormous amounts of natural disasters in this area which could be why a lot of their gods are angry and vengeful gods. Their economy was based on trading with the peoples of the north. They also established religious centers and the formation of city-states. Mayan society was very advanced but all technological innovations pertained to religion and appeasement of their gods.
They had a unified written script which allowed them to communicate. The height of Mayan civilization was in three hundred C. There are many factors that caused the decline of the Mayan civilization. Firstly, environmental factors played a large role as a period of drought commenced after many successful rainy seasons which lead to huge increases in the population.
They also used slash and burn agriculture which only supports crops for a short period of time before that same land becomes arid and unusable. Also the arrival of the Spanish in Peru lead to the spread of epidemic diseases that the Mayans had no immunity for including small pox, measles, and chicken pox.
Internal rivalries were also present which caused conflict and instability within the society. The Spanish also conquered territory and with their superior weapons and military they were able to defeat the Mayans. At the height of Mayan Civilization it is obvious that this civilization was strong and very advanced. But, like the other civilizations a variety of factors came about that lead to the decline and further more fall of the Mayan Civilization.
However there are still people of Mayan descent that I do believe protect the language and customs, but Mayan civilization no longer has its own economic base or power and influence over other peoples or on the environment.
And lastly, I would like to look at Roman Civilization. The Roman Empire was founded in eight century B. However, in five hundred and nine B. When the republican constitution was in place, Roman civilization really began to rise in prominence. Between the fourth and second centuries B.
In early Rome, polytheism was common, which was their belief in many Roman gods, but as they conquered lands new religions were brought into the empire including Judaism and Christianity. They consolidated their power in the Italian peninsula, and expanded outwards to conquer lands. They absorbed the land they conquered and allowed those peoples to govern their own internal affairs, and if they wanted, to gain Roman citizenship.
This expansion brought wealth and power to Rome, but also increased class tensions where the disparity between the poor and the wealthy, and also administering to all the conquered lands began to strain resources. The Roman Empire was based on trade, and since they had such a large territory there was a lot of specialization that allowed them to trade in many goods. But with the over reach of the Roman Empire and the strain on resources, the Roman Empire was just too large to control and maintain.
Internal tensions and attacks from outsiders also led to the fall of Rome. I have just outlined four cases that come from completely different areas of the world in which civilizations have risen, reached some sort of peak, and then declined and eventually diminished altogether. There are many more examples of civilizations throughout history that have also followed this pattern, but does outlining the instances in which these civilizations became established and then subsequent fall really explains why rise and fall is inevitable in all civilizations?
I do not believe it explains the inevitability part that I have mentioned. I think in order to really understand why civilizations are bound to repeat this process lies within the human psyche. Humans are essentially the most complex species on the planet. It is our brain and the ability to make tools that sets us apart from all other species and has allowed us to grow and develop in the way that we have.
But humans also have another side which is not as bright. It is our consumerism, greed, and the belief that our species is the superior species and therefore we have the right to do what we will. This belief in superiority and greed has led to an evolution where we do not take into account the environment and the land that gives us sustenance and the ability to breathe clean air.
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